FERMENTED MILK PRODUCTS**

 

BUTTER The fat content of butter is generally about 80%. The non-fat components of butter consist of moisture, milk solids not fat and salt if added. Most of the butter produced in our country is converted to ghee. Butter is made from sweet or sour cream. The cream is pasteurized at 62.8°C for 30 minutes after which it is immediately cooled. Then a culture of desirable micro-organisms is added. The culture consists of bacteria of two types one of which ferments lactose producing lactic acid which in turn curdles the milk and the other principally attacks the citric acid of milk producing volatile acids and products such as diacetyl which give the desirable flavour and aroma to the butter. The cream is then allowed to ripen at 21.1 °C for several hours for the fermentation to take place. CHEESE Cheese is made of casein: Classification of cheese Cheese is classified as hard or soft, depending on their moisture content and whether they are ripened by bacteria or moulds or unripened. CHEESE PREPARATION Curd formation: Pasteurized whole milk is brought to a temperature of 31°C and lactic acid producing starter culture and required colouring matter are added. After about 30 minutes to the mildly acidic milk,' rennin solution is added, stirred and allowed to set the set the curd for 30 minutes. Curd cutting: The curd is cut into small cubes. The removal of whey from small cubes is easy. The curd for different types of cheese therefore is cut into different sized cubes. Curd cooking: Then it is heated to 38°C and held at that temperature for about 45 minutes. During this period the curd is stirred to prevent matting. Curd drainage: Heating squeezes out whey from the cubes. Heat increases the rate of acid production which makes the curd cubes shrink. Whey is drained off and the curd is allowed to mat. Cheddaring: Next it is subjected to the process of cheddaring. This consists cutting the matted curd into blocks turning the block at 15 minutes intervals and then piling the blocks on one another 2 or 3 deep. During the cheddaring operation which takes about 2 hours acid formation continues. The cheddared curd is passed through a curd mill which cuts the slabs into strips. Salting the curd: Whey is eliminated during this process. Salt is added to draw whey out of curd by osmosis and also acts as a preservative. Salt also holds down spoilage of organisms and adds flavour. Pressing: The cheese cubes are pressed under pressure overnight. This pressing determines the final moisture content of finished product and then the cheese is ripened from 60 days to 12 months depending on the strong or mild flavour cheese required. Ripening: Ripening takes place under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity for varying periods of time. During this process cheese changes from a bland tough rubbery mass to a full flavoured soft product. During ripening rennin splits the protein of cheese into nitrogenous products of intermediate size such as peptones and peptides. Enzymes formed by the micro-organisms act on these and other substances to form products like amino acids, amines, fatty acids, esters, aldehydes, alcohols and ketones that give its characteristic flavour. Ripening also improves the cooking quality. The increased dispersability of the protein of ripened cheese is a factor in the ease of blending cheese with other food ingredients. Cheese has limited keeping quality and require refrigeration, should be kept cold and dry i.e., it should be wrapped in wax paper or metal foil. SHRIKHAND: - Shrikhand is a semi-soft sweetish sour, whole milk product prepared form lactic fermented curd. The basic ingredient of Shrikhand is Chakka. Method of preparation: - The standardized method of preparation consist of fresh, sweet buffalo milk, which has been standardized to 6% fat, is pasteurized at 71 for 10 minutes and then cooled to 28-30. It is then inoculated @ 1% with lactic culture which is mixed well, and incubated at 28-30 for 15-16 hours. When the curd has set firmly (acidity 0.7-0.8% lactic), it is broken and placed in a muslin cloth bag and removed after 8 to 10 hours. Now the curd get change into a solid mass called Chakka. This Chakka is then mixed with grinded sugar. Colour and flavour can also be added to obtain the product known as Shrikhand. GHEE: - Ghee is a clarified butter fat prepared from cow or buffalo milk. Method of preparation: - Cream accumulated after few days is usually taken in a suitable vessel and heated and stirred on a low flame to remove the moisture contain. After removing moisture contain further heating is stopped then cooling is done. On cooling, when the residue has settled down the clear fat is decanted into suitable containers. Characteristics Cow Buffalo Milk fat 99 to 99.5% Moisture Not more than 0.5% Unsaponifiable matter   Carotene (mg./g.) 3.2-7.4 - Vit. A (I.U./g.) 19-34 17-38 Charred casein, salts of copper and iron, etc. Max.2.8 (Agmark) Traces RABRI It is prepared concentrated and sweetened product comprising of several layers of clotted cream. The layer of cream formed, as a skin is continuously removed. When the milk is reduced to 1/3 of the original volume, sugar is added and the layer of cream skin is mixed. Composition Characteristics Percentage Moisture 30 Fat 20 Protein 10 Lactose 17 Ash 3 Sugar 20     Method of preparation: - Rabri is normally prepared by heating 3-4kg of milk in a wide pan over a fire to simmering temperature (85-90), and then maintaining the temperature by controlled heating. The milk is neither stirred nor allowed to boil. The surface of the milk may be gently fanned to help the process of skin formation. A piece of this skin, about 3-4cm. square, is continuously broken with a thick wooden stick and moved to the cooler parts of the pan. This operation requires considerable skill and constant attention. Simultaneously, as slow evaporation reduces the milk to about one-fifth of its original volume, good quality round sugar at 5-6 per cent by weight of the original milk is added to the milk concentrate and dissolved in it. The layers of skin collected on the pan surface are then immersed in the mixture and the finished product obtained by gently heating the whole mass for another brief period.   KHOA Khoa is a partially dehydrated whole milk product. Method of preparation: -Milk is cautiously stirred in a circular motion to prevent scorching. When milk becomes viscous the rate of stirring is increased to maintain a uniform consistency. The pan is removed from the fire and the product is worked up with the flattened end of the scraper by alternatively spreading into thin layers and collecting repeatedly until it retains its shape. After cooling it becomes solid. Composition Characteristics Cow Buffalo Moisture 25.6 19.2 Fat 25.7 37.1 Protein 19.2 17.8 Lactose 25.5 22.1 Ash 3.8 3.6 Iron (ppm) 103 101 KALAKAND Ingredients Milk                 1 kg Sugar               60g Citric acid        1/2g Pista (optional)             a few pieces Silver paper (optional) 1 leaf Cardamom       A few sticks Method Boil the specific quantity of milk in a pan placed over a brisk and non-smoky fire. Stir continuously with a laddle with a circular motion. After 10-15 minutes, add to it the required amount of citric acid as a dilute solution in water. These will partially coagulate the milk. At this time vigorous stirring is required to obtain a product of good quality. When a semi-solid stage is reached, add sugar and stir well. Add crushed cardamom if desired. Remove after five minutes. This finished product is set in a greasy tray or plate and allowed to cool at room temperature. Kalakand is now ready. Decorate, if desired, with silver paper and sliced pista. Cut into required size and shape to serve. GULAB JAMUN** PREPARATION OF GULAB JAMUN FROM KHOA Ingredients   Khoa (g) 75 Maida (g) 25 NaHCO3 (g) 0.1 Water (ml) 15 Sugar syrup: Water (ml) 300 Sugar (g) 300 Frying oil (ml) 100 BURFI* Ingredients  Khoa (fresh and hot) 250g Sugar (crystal) 75g Chocolate        10g Method Break khoa into bits and spread it in a pan. Add (preferably crystal) sugar to it and mix well by working vigorously with a wooden ladle. Collect the mixture into a compact mass when all the sugar has dissolved. This is Plain burfi. Now separate one third of the mixture and mix chocolate into it. Take a well-greased plate and spread plain burfi (two-thirds of the mixture) as a thick layer. Apply the chocolate-mixed portion all over it as a thin KHEER** Kheer is also known as Basundi. It is used for direct consumption as desert. It is prepared by concentrating milk to half of its original volume by open pan concentration and adding sugar and other condiments. Method: - fresh, sweet, cleaned milk standardized to 4.0% fat and vigorously boiled in a jacketed stainless steel pan for 3 to 5 minutes accompanied by constant stirring cum scraping with a laddle. High-grade rice 2.5%of milk, pre-cleaned and washed with cold water before use, is now added. The mixture is gently boiled, with periodical stirring-cum-scraping. When the concentration is about 1:8:1, clean, good quality sugar is added at 5% of milk. Gentle heating is continued for another 3 to 5 minutes till a final concentration of about 2:1 is obtained. The yield of finished kheer should be about 50% of the milk used. PANEER ** Paneer refers to the indigenous variety of rennet-coagulated, small-sized, soft cheese. Composition Characteristics Cow (%) Buffalo (%) Moisture 71.2 71.1 Fat 13.5 13.1 Total solids 28.8 28.9 Method of preparation: - Surati Cheese or paneer is the best known of the few indigenous varieties of cheese. The name Surati appears to have been derived from the town of Surat. Technique of production: - Fresh buffalo milk, standardized to 6 per cent fat, is pasteurized by heating it to 78for 20 seconds and promptly cooling it to 35 . About 0.5 to 2 kg of this milk is placed in the coagulating pan and the temperature maintained at 35 by circulating warm water in the jacket. Good quality lactic starter @ 0.5 per cent of milk is now added to the milk and thoroughly mixed into it. This is followed by the addition of rennet @6-7ml/100 lit. milk, the rennet being previously diluted with about 20 times its volume of water (The quantity of rennet added should be such as to give a clean cut in the curd at the end of about 60 minutes.) after mixing it adequately, the renneted milk is allowed to set till a firm coagulum fit for basketing is obtained. The temperature during this time is maintained at 35. The curd is then ladled out with a vertical slant in thin slices, and filled into especially made bamboo/wicker baskets. These baskets are previously prepared by cleaning them with heated water, keeping them soaked in a 10% lukewarm salt solution for about 10 minutes, and then tkm hinly dressed with salt. Each successive layer of curd put into the baskets is uniformly sprinkled with salt. Salting is done @ 4-5% of the green cheese (which works out to approximately 2% of the milk taken). After they have been filled, the baskets are placed on the draining rack to allow for drainage of whey, which is collected in a tray placed underneath. Generally, at the end of 50 to 60 minutes, the individual pieces of cheese are firm enough to be handled without breaking. At this stage, they are carefully turned upside down in their respective baskets. This is known as the ‘First Turning’. After draining them for a further 30-40 minutes, the cheeses, on attaining the desired firmness and consistency, are subjected to their ‘Second Turning’. The collected whey is then strained through a muslin cloth and kept in the cheese-soaking basin. The pieces of cheese are removed from the baskets and carefully submerged in the whey. They are then left steeped in whey for 12-36 hours till disposed of or used. The yield of surati paneer is approximately 28.5% for cow and 34.0% for buffalo milk. CHHANA ** Chhana, also called paneer in certain parts of the country, constitutes one of the two chief bases (the other being khoa) for the preparation of indigenous sweetmeats. Chhana refers to the milk-solids obtained by the acid coagulation of boiled hot whole milk and subsequent drainage of whey. The acids commonly used are lactic or citric, in both natural and chemical forms. It should not contain more than 70% moisture, and the milk fat content should not be less than 50.0 per cent of the dry matter. Composition Characteristics Cow (%) Buffalo (%) Moisture 53.4 51.6 Fat 24.8 29.6 Protein 17.4 14.4 Lactose 2.1 2.3 Ash 2.1 2.0 Method of production: - There are two methods for making chhana, which are adopted by commercial manufacturers. Batch method: Usually all the milk for chhana-making is brought to boil by heating it directly in a large iron pan over an open fire, all the while stirring it with a laddle, and later keeping it simmering hot in the pan. This hot milk is ladled out in batches of 0.5 to 1kg into a separate coagulation vessel, either already containing, or to which is promptly added the required quantity of the coagulant. The latter is normally cleansed sour chhana-whey, which is maintained in a large earthen vessel from day to day. The mixture of milk and whey is stirred with the ladle, and when it has completely coagulated, the contents are poured over a piece of clean muslin cloth stretched over another vessel (for receiving the whey). The process is repeated till all the milk is used up. The cloth containing the coagulated solids is then removed, tied up into a bundle without applying pressure and hung up not only to drain out the whey completely but also to cool the chhana-pot. Bulk method: All the milk (5-15kg) is brought to boil as above in the pan, which is then removed from the fire. The coagulant is then added slowly and gradually in the required quantity to the entire lot of milk and stirred with the ladle so that it mixes properly and clear coagulation takes place. The chhana is collected by straining it through a cloth.   SANDESH Ingredients Chhana            250g Sugar               75g Flavour (optional) A few drops Cardamom (optional)   A few sticks Method Break freshly made chhana into bits. Mix (preferably ground) sugar into it. Put the mixture in a pan and heat on a slow fire stirring all the time with a laddle. (Add crushed cardamom, if desired, towards the end). When the mixture is ready (mixture forms balls when tested) pour it into a tray and leave it to cool and set. Sandesh is now ready. It is cut or moulded into the desired size and shape. (A popular flavour-cum-colour is saffron, which is mixed with the finished product before it is cut or moulded). RASSOGOLLA** Ingredients Chhana (soft)   200g Maida (optional) 8g Sugar               250g Water               1 kg Elaichidana      A few pieces Flavour (Rose) A few drops Method Break the above quantity above quantity of chhana into bits and start kneading. There should be no oozing of fat during this operation. To avoid this, especially during summer, keep the vessel in which the kneading is done, upon a tray in which ice or chilled water is kept. If required, a small quantity (as above) of maida may be added to avoid cracks in the finished rassogollas. The consistency of the kneaded mass should be such that when made into small balls, it has a smooth surface without signs of cracks. Meanwhile, dissolve all the sugar in water and boil the solution. During this process, add 2 tablespoonfuls of milk and ladle out the scum to obtain clear syrup. Keep this in a suitable-sized degchi in which the chhana balls are cooked, such that a minimum depth of 10-15cm. of syrup is obtained. Now make the balls of chhana. While doing this, one sugarcoated Elaichidana may be put in the centre of each ball. After all the balls (10-15) have been made, put them gently in the boiling sugar syrup for the cooking process. See that the balls do not overcrowded the degchi and that there is enough space for them to move freely, especially after they swell. Close the lid of the vessel. The heating should be so controlled that the balls are constantly covered with foam. Keep a watch form time to time. After 5-10 minutes, the balls will swell. If the chhana has been well made and properly kneaded, the balls will not crack or break. After 5-10 minutes, the colour of the balls will darken slightly. The finished rassogollas should normally be ready after 20-25 minutes. During the last stage, the lid should be removed so that the sugar syrup finally attains string consistency. After cooling, sprinkle flavour (rose) to serve. KULFI ** Ice cream frozen in small containers. While the milk is boiling, it is sweetened by an addition of sugar and the product is concentrated to approximately 2:1. To this concentrate, when it has cooled, are added malai (indigenous cream), crushed nuts and a flavour (commonly rose or vanilla). The mix is placed in triangular, conical or cylindrical moulds of various capacities made of galvanized iron sheets. The moulds are closed on top by placing a small disc over them. A mixture of ice and salt in the ratio of 1:1. Technologies Available *    - Post Harvest Technology Centre, TNAU, Coimbatore. **  - Home Science College and Research Institute, TNAU, Madurai. Source http://www.recipetips.com/images/glossary/m/milk_skim.jpg http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2191/2429466610_0c7d34b9a6.jpg http://static.flickr.com/119/316311987_a9dc60c4c5.jpg http://www.agroexporters.com/full-images/685216.jpg http://farm1.static.flickr.com/42/105300416_a9af7530ae.jpg http://andrew.jorgensenfamily.us/files/2007/09/peaches-and-cream.jpg http://www.restaurantwidow.com/images/2008/05/05/coffee_ice_cream.jpg amitonnews.blogspot.com/2007/04/yoghurt.html  http://lightbluetaxi.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/butter.png enjoyindianfood.blogspot.com/2008/05/top-10-p...shrikhand www.jupiterimages.com/itemDetail.aspx?itemID=...  www.tarladalal.com/recipe.asp?id=424 http://food.sulekha.com/dishimages/433.jpg http://bp1.blogger.com/_UTFhjZBO5ac/s1600-h/pista+burfi+1.JPG www.sailusfood.com/.../  http://www.giftssendtokolkata.com/nag/sandesh_kasturi.jpg http://content.answers.com /thumb/4/4d/250px-Rasagulla.jpg http://media.santabanta.com/rec/pistachio_saffron_kulfi.jpg http://govindmilk.com/products.php?id=paneer http://www.liliesnroses.com/Sweets_files/kalakand-recipe.jpg

Quails

 

General Information

Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds in the pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. The quails are small, plump terrestrial birds. They are seed eaters, but will also take insects and similar small prey. They nest on the ground.

Breeds

Japanese quail and Bobwhite quails are the domesticated varieties of quail. Japanese quails are hardy, grows faster, has a short generation interval and is precocious. The meat is a delicacy. Specific lines developed for egg production as well as meat production are available.

                   

Japanese  quail

CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Health care

Japanese quails are hardier. They seldom have disease problems. Therefore, there is no need for routine immunization programme as with other poultry species. One major disease that affects Japanese quail is quail enteritis. This disease can be treated using appropriate antibiotics under Veterinarian’s advice.

Care of Adult Quails

The males and females can be separated based on physical appearance at about
4-5 weeks of age. The males have an even coloured rusty brown breast feathers with only few speckles of white. Where as the females have grey and black speckled breast feathers. The males also have a cloacal gland, which secretes a white foamy material. In contrast to most poultry, females are slightly heavier than males.

  
( Source: KVK, Namakkal )

Quails reach sexual maturity at about six weeks of age and weigh 120 g. Adults require 150-180 cm 2 per quail in laying cage. A feeder space of 2-3 cm per quail and water space of 2 cm has to be provided. For laying flock a photoperiod of 16 hours is desirable for good egg production. Layer quails may be provided with a mash containing 22% protein and 2650 K cal/kg of ME. Japanese quails reproduce well in all seasons. The eggs are laid from evening, the peak being between 6.30 – 7.30 p.m. The eggs laid during second year of lay are very much fewer than first year. Quail egg weighs around 10 g and is characterised by a variety of colour pattern ranging from dark brown, blue and white to buff each mottled with black, brown and blue. The egg shell is very thin and therefore breaks easily.

Care of quail chicks
The hatch weight of quail chicks is 6-7 g. They can be brooded either on deep litter or in battery brooders. However brooding the quail chicks in cages up to end of 3 weeks of age reduces initial mortality considerably.

The floor space suggested is 75 cm2/chick under the hover and 75 cm2/chick as run space. The brooder temperature recommended is 37oC at the beginning and this should be reduced at 2.7oC per week until the chicks are 4 weeks of age, by which time the quails would have grown their feathers very well. During brooding, water should be given in shallow dishes filled with marbles or pebbles to prevent quail chicks from drowning. The marbles or pebbles can be removed when the chicks are about 2 weeks of age.

The feeder space and water space recommendations are 2 and 1 linear cm per quail chick respectively. Quail chicks can be fed with a mash containing 27% protein and 2750 K cal / kg of ME up to end of 3 weeks of age and a mash containing 24% protein and 2750 K cal/kg of ME from 4th week of age. Maximum care has to bestow during the first two weeks of life of quail chicks.

( Source: KVK, Namakkal )

Care of Breeding Quails

Good fertility can be obtained with a male-female ratio of 1:2. After introduction of male to a female flock, fertile eggs can be collected from 4th day onwards. Optimum fertility is obtained when the age of breeding flock is 8 months or less. Hatchability of fertile eggs rapidly declines when eggs are collected from older females. However, this effect is not observed with males.

Feed ration for Japanese Quails

Ingredients	Starter (0-3 weeks)	Grower (4-6 weeks)	Layer (above 6 weeks)
Yellow maize	43.25	44.25	46.25
Groundnut cake	20.00	20.00	20.00
Soyabean meal	22.00	14.00	10.00
Rice polish	3.00	10.00	8.00
Unsalted dried fish	10.00	10.00	10.00
Mineral mixture	1.50	1.50	1.50
Salt	0.25	0.25	0.25
Shell grit	-	-	4.00
Total	100.00	100.00	100.00

(Source: Kerala Agricultural University)
For every 100 kg of feed, commercially available vitamin mixture may be added at the rate recommended by the manufacturer

Care of hatching eggs

Shell of quail eggs are comparatively thinner and therefore should be handled carefully. Eggs should be held in an atmosphere free of dust and having a temperature of 14 to 16 0 C with a relative humidity of 70 to 80%. Eggs held even under these conditions should be used for hatching within 7 days of holding. The incubation period of quail egg is 18 days. Quail eggs can be incubated artificially using forced draft incubator at a temperature of 36.9 – 37.2 0 C with a relative humidity of 60 to 70%. Eggs should be turned 4 to 6 times daily upto 14 days of incubation.                       

Quail	Quail Egg

( Source: KVK, Namakkal )

CHICKEN BREEDS

 

General Information

India has made considerable progress in broiler production in the last two decades. High quality chicks, equipments, vaccines and medicines are available. With an annual output of 41.06 billion eggs and 1000 million broilers, India ranks fourth largest producer of eggs and fifth largest producer of poultry broiler in the world. The broiler production has also sky rocketed at an annual growth rate of about 15 percent at present. Broiler farming has been given considerable importance in the national policy and has a good scope for further development in the years to come.

 Advantages of Chicken farming

• Initial investment is a little lower than layer farming.
• Rearing period is 6-7 weeks only.
• More number of flocks can be taken in the same shed.
• Broilers have high feed conversion efficiency i.e. least amount of feed is required for unit body weight gain in comparison to other livestock.
• Faster return from the investment.
• Demand for poultry meat is more compared to sheep/Goat meat.

Classification of Breeds of Poultry

Americal Class

New Hampshire	White Plymouth Rock	Rhode Island Red	Wyandote II

Mediterranean Class

They are light bodied and well developed for high egg production.

Leghorn	Minorca	Ancona

English Class

Australorp	Sussex	Orphington

They are mostly utility breeds noted for their excellent flushing properties.

Asiatic Class

They are large bodied with heavy bones feathered shanks and poor layers.

Indian breeds

Asil (Fighting purpose)		Kadacknath (Resh is black in colour) Bursa

Commercial Broiler strains
Eg. Cobb, Hubbard, Lohman, Anak 2000, Avian -34, Starbra, Sam rat etc.,

Commercial Layer Strains
Eg.BV-300, Bowans, Hyline, H & N nick, Dekalb Lohman etc.

Broiler: Broiler are young chicken of either sex, which are reared primarily for meat purposes and marketed at an age of 6-8 weeks

Grower: The management of birds during 9-20 weeks or to the point of laying is referred to as grower period.

Layer: The management of birds during 21-72 weeks of age for the purpose of laying eggs (egg production).

(Source: Dr.Paul Pricely Rajkumar, AC&RI, Madurai )

Breeds of Chicken

Chickens are grown for their egg and meat. Likewise they are classified as egg-type chicken and meat-types chickens. Egg type chickens are composed of stock that has been developed for egg production and are maintained for the principal purpose of producing chicks for the ultimate production of eggs for human consumption. Breeds of meat type chickens primarily include broilers, fryers, roasters, and other meat type chickens. Here broilers and other chickens are raised for their meat. Broilers are genetically selected for fast growth and raised for meat rather than eggs e.g. White Synthetic Male line (WSML), white synthetic dam line (SDL), coloured synthetic male line (CSML), coloured synthetic female line (CSFL), introgression of frizzle gene etc.
                             
Native breeds of egg type chicken in India

Breed	Body weight (20 weeks)	Age at sexual maturity (days)	Annual egg production (No.)	Egg weight at 40 weeks (g)	Fertility	Hatchability FES (5)
Aseel	1220	196	92	50	66	63
Frizzle	1005	185	110	53	61	71
Kadaknath	920	180	105	49	55	52
Naked neck	1005	201	99	54	66	71

(Source: Central Avian Research Institute)

Indigenous Breeds

The common control hen, the desi, is as a rule the best mother for hatching. She is a good forager. Some of the Indian flows resemble the Leghorn in size and shape, but have poor laying qualities. They are Found in various colours. one variety found in India resembles the sussex or Plymouth Rock in shape but is smaller. These birds lay family well and are more common in the eastern parts of the country.

The Indian birds are mostly non-descripts, and are of very little value as layers. They have several local breed names such as Tenis, Naked Neck, Punjab, Brown, Ghagus, Lolab, Kashmir Faberella, Tilri, Busra, Telllicherry, Danki, Nicorai and Kalahasti. There are only 4 pure breeds Karaknath and the Busra. The last occurs in western India. A large number of flows of different size, shapes and colours, and for the most part resembling the jungle fowls, are found all over India. They vary in appearance according to the locality in which they have been bred. These with Chittagong, Aseel, Langshan or Brahma blood in them are bigger in size and better in meat quality than the common flows.

Asil

Asil is noted for its pugnacity, high stamina, majestic gait and dogged fighting qualities. The best specimens of the breed, although rare, and encountered in parts of Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rsjasthan. The most popular varieties are peela (golden red), yarkin (black and red), Nurie 89(white), kagar (black), chitta (black and white silver), Teekar (brown) and Reza (light red). Although poor in productivity, the birds of this breed are well-known for their meat qualities. Broodiness in most common and the hen is a good sitter and efficient mother. They possess pea combs which are small  but firmly set on head. Wattles and ear lobes are bright red, and the beak is hart. The face is long and slender, and not covered with feather. The eyes are compact, well set and present bold looks. The neck is long, uniformly thick but no fleshy. The body is round and short with broad breast straight back and close - set strong tail root. The general feathering is close, scanty and almost absent on the Brest. The plumage has practically no fluff and the feathers are tough. The tail is small and drooping. The legs are strong, straight, and set well apart. Standard weight (kg): Cocks, 4 to 5; hen 3 to 4; cockerrels, 3.5 to 4.5; pullets, 2.5  to 3.5.

Asil

Karaknath

The original name of the breed seems to be Kalamasi, meaning a fowl with black flesh. However, it is popularly known as Karaknath. The eggs are light brown. The day-old chicks are bluish to black with irregular dark stripes over the the back. The adult plumage varies from silver and gold-spangled to bluish-black without any spangling.  The skin, beak, shanks, toes and soles of feet are slatelike in colour.The comb, wattles and tongue are purple. Most of the internal organs show intense black colouration which is pronounced in trachea, thoracic and abdominal air-sacs, gonads and at the base of  the heart and mesentery. Varying degrees of block colouration are also seen in the skeletal muscles, tendons, nerves, meninges, brain etc. The blood is darker than normal blood. The black pigment has been due to deposition of melanin, The flesh although repulsive to look at, is delicious. A medium layer, lays about 80 eggs per year. The bird is resistant to diseases in its natural habitat in free range but is more susceptible to Mareks disease under intensive rearing conditions.
(Source: Dr.Acharya, Handbook of Animal Husbandry)

Kadaknath

Naked neck ( Photo source: KVK Namakkal )

Other commercial breeds of broiler chicken in India

Breed	First egg	50% Production	Peak production	Livability	Egg production peak	Feed efficiency	Egg weight	Net egg production (72 weeks)
ILI-80	17-18 weeks	150 days	26-28 weeks	Grower (96%) Layer (94%)	92%	2.1	54 g	280 eggs
Golden-92	18-19 weeks	155 days	27-29 weeks	Grower (96%) Layer (94%)	90%	2.2	54 g	265 eggs
Priya	17-18 weeks	150 days	26-28 weeks	Grower (96%) Layer (94%)	92%	2.1	57 g	290 eggs
Sonali	18-19 weeks	155 days	27-29 weeks	Grower (96%) Layer (94%)	90%	2.2	54 g	275 eggs
Devendra	18-19 weeks	155 days	27-29 weeks	Grower (97%) Layer (94%)	90%	2.5	50 g	200 eggs

(Source: Central Avian Research Institute)                                

Commercial available meat-type chicken in India

Breed	Weight at six weeks (g)	Weight at seven weeks (g)	Food conversion ratio	Livability (%)
B-77	1300	1600	2.3	98-99
CARIBRO-91	1650	2100	1.94-2.2	97-98
CARIBRO Multicoloured	1600	2000	1.9-2.1	97-98
CARIBRO Naked necked	1650	2000	1.9-2.0	97-98
Varna	1500	1800	2.1-2.25	97

(Source: www.vuatkerala.org )

Poultry Rearing

Basically two systems are commonly followed in our country
1. Cage system
2. Deep litter system

I. Cage system:  The cage system of rearing birds has been considered as a super intensive system providing floor area of 450-525 sq.cm. (0.6-0.75 sq.feet) per bird.  In cage the birds are kept in one, two or three per cage, arranged in single or double or triple rows.

Cage system

Advantages
1. Greater number of birds is reared per unit of area
2. Facilitates correct maintenance of records
3. Helps in identifying poor producers and prompt culling
4. Control of vices of poultry cannibalism and egg eating
5. It helps in production of clean eggs
6. Removal of stress factors
7. Easy control of parasitic disease like coccidiosis and worm infestation
8. Prompt steps to control feed wastage.
9. The cage method of housing is ideal for the area of moderated climate conditions where the day temperature in summer does not high and temperature does not fall too low.
10. Egg production of caged layer was reported to be more then those kept in deep litter system.
11. Feed efficiency and egg weight were better in caged birds than the laying flock under deep litter system.

Disadvantages:
1. Difficulties in ensuring proper ventilation to birds especially in summer season and under very high densed conditions.
2. Incidence of leg problem, cage layer fatigue, fatty liver syndrome, flies and obnoxious gases in the house will be on increases
3. Hysteriosis of chicks

Cage fatigue:  Cage fatigue is considered to a physiological derangement of mineral electrolytes imbalance.  Leg weakness is common in caged birds.

Cage fatigue

Fatty live syndrome:  It is a problem met with caged layers due to increased deposition of fat in the body resulting in death due to internal hemorrhage.  Increasing the protein level and the diet strengthened by the addition of choline, vitamin B12, inositol and vitamin-E may be helpful in reducing the incidence of problem.

Proper ventilation, correction of light-intensity, duration, temperature, ideal environmental conditions, and maintenance of comfort in cages will check the conditions of hysteria of chicken in cages.

II. Deep litter system:  Deep litter system is commonly used in all over the world.

 

Deep litter system

Advantages:
1. It is an economical
2. Hygienic, comfortable and safe to birds
3. Built up litter supplies vitamin B12 and Riboflavin to the birds
4. Controls diseases and vices
5. It increases the efficiency of production
6. Materials such as paddy husks saw dust, dried leaf, chopped straw and groundnut kernels depending upon the availability can be used as litter materials.

Points to be considered while adopting deep litter system
1. The deep litter system should always kept dry.
2. Only right numbers of birds should be housed
3. The house should be well ventilated
4. The litter should be stirred at least once in a week-wet litter if any should be replaced immediately with new dry litter and birds must be   fed a balanced ratio.
5. The time starting deep litter system should be in the dry period of the year as it allows sufficient time (At least two months) for bacterial      action.
6. Placing of water should be given due attention to keep litter dry.
(Source: Dr.Paul Pricely Rajkumar, AC&RI, Madurai )

Confinement Rearing

Size of flock: Larger size units are more economical than smaller ones under commercial conditions. A unit of 2000 layers is usually considered as economical for commercial egg production. In the case of broilers a unit intake of 250 chicks per week is usually considered as viable.

Stock: Procure the best quality chicks. No amount of good management can convert poor quality chicks into good layers or broilers. More profit can be made in a commercial unit by procuring day old pullet chicks. In broiler units, straight-run chicks would give equally good performance.

Random sample poultry performance test: Government of India has established random sample test units for layers and broilers in four locations, viz. Bangalore, Bombay, Bhubaneswar and Delhi. The test results are published annually and give information about the performance of the various strains and breeds of chicken under identical conditions. This information would help in the choice of the stock.

Number to be procured: In determining the number to be procured, normal losses that might occur due to death and culling have to be allowed. For each 1000 layers to be housed,  procure 1100, day-old pullet chicks or 1050 growing pullet chicks or 1000 ready-to-lay pullets. In the case of broilers, the corresponding number would be 250-day-old straight-run chicks for 250 broilers to be marketed at 6-7 weeks of age.

Artificial brooding: Chicks newly hatched out require supplementary heat till they grow feathers. The period of brooding is usually up to 4-5 weeks of age and a little longer in cold season. Artificial brooding can be carried out in deep litter houses or in electrically operated brooder batteries.

Artificial brooding

Floor space, feeding space and watering space for chicks

Age weeks	Floor space Sq.ft./Chick	Feeding space inches/chick	Watering space inches/chick
1	0.2	1.5	0.5
2	0.2	2.0	0.7
3	0.3	2.0	0.7
4	0.4	2.5	0.8
5	0.6	2.5	0.8
6	0.8	3.0	1.0
7	0.9	3.0	1.0

(Source: Central Avian Research Institute)

On the deep litter, provide 700 cm2 floor area per chick till 8 weeks of age. In a hover with one m diameter, 250 chicks can be brooded. The hover can be metal or bamboo basket fitted with a heat source. The size and number of the hovers depend on the number of chicks to be brooded. Units of 250 chicks are ideal for efficient management. The hover can be placed at appropriate height from the floor either by hanging it from the roof or by placing it over bricks or stones so that chicks can go in and out easily. Temperature required for brooding is 1 –2 Watt/chick. Use five bulbs of 60 Watts per unit of 250 chicks.

Electricity is the common source of heat used. Electric bulbs of multiple units are preferred over single bulb to cover the wattage. Infra-red bulbs can also be used for brooding. Hover is not necessary when infrared bulbs are used. The number of bulbs to be used depends on the number of chicks to be brooded. The rule of thumb is that one Infra-red bulb of 250 watts for every 250 chicks. Position the bulb 50 cm above litter.

The requirement of chicks for additional warmth decreases as they grow. The warmth as measured by thermometer at 5 cm (2 inches) above the floor level should be checked everyday.

Temperature requirement of chicks during different ages

Age in weeks	Temperature under hover, at 5 cm above floor ( °C)
0-1	35
0-2	32
2-3	29
3-4	26
5-5	23

The distribution of chicks under the hover is a better indication of warmth than the thermometer. If the chicks are active, busy eating and drinking, it indicates that the temperature under the hover is comfortable. Generally one watt per chick appears satisfactory under our climatic conditions.

Litter management: Litter materials such as wood shavings; saw dust, paddy husk, peanut shell, paddy chaff, chopped straw and such other materials that absorb moisture well can be used depending upon the cost and availability. Spread the litter to a depth of 5 cm on the floor before introducing chicks and build it up to a depth of 15 cm by adding litter material, at the rate of about 2 cm per week. This would require approximately 10 kg of litter material/sq.meter. Litter should be raked thoroughly at frequent intervals, say at least twice a week, during the cold and rainy season, once a week during the hot season and the day after deworming. Litter should be kept dry always. During the cold and rainy season and on the area of floor where watering utensils are placed, special attention should be paid daily to check the litter condition. If required, top-dress with fresh litter. It is desirable to use dry lime at the rate of 10 kg per 10 m3 and rake the litter.

Light: Artificial light should be discontinued from the time the chicks no more require additional warmth. Dim light of a 40-watt bulb for every 250 chicks can be provided during the night for broiler chicks.
(Source: www.vuatkerala.org)